Science and Mathematics is all
about building abstract models which attempt to reflect various aspects of
reality. As someone who did a Ph.D. in theoretical organic chemistry I am well
used to the idea of multiple models of atoms and how they interact and whether,
for example, it is useful to think of them as rather like miniature billiard
balls, or as abstract probability functions. The problem Chris Yapp refers to
arises because the computer industry has myopically concentrated on a single model
based on pre-defined algorithms for the way information can be processed.
The early computers were
developed to carry out highly repetitive mathematical calculations which could
not be done quickly or accurately enough by specially trained human beings. It
turns out that many highly repetitive tasks could be represented by a
predefined set of rules (an algorithm) and hence be carried out using a
computer. What could be done was limited by the speed and memory of the
computer, and the ability of people of people to program the systems. However
this proved to be no real barrier as every few years faster computers, with
more memory, and easier to use programming languages appeared on the market,
while more and more people were trained to use them. There was big money to be
made and careers to be built and it seemed that everyone tried to get on the
bandwagon. Worldwide hundreds of people started to develop better hardware and
software and the result was a rat race where the first to get to get a
successful product to the market won, and the rest fell by the wayside.
In this heated environment did
anyone stop and ask whether there was a alternative information model for
handling open-ended tasks involving dynamic interaction with human beings. Even
the pioneering work at Xerox Parc, which led to the kinds of user interfaces we
find today on personal computing systems, did not go back to first principles.
It took if for granted that computers were inherently opaque black box systems
and that what was needed was a front end which hid the incomprehensible
internal workings from the human users. Dozens of different computer languages
were devised to find different ways to write algorithms – without asking
whether humans naturally thought in an algorithmic way. It was suggested that
there was no point in looking for an alternative approach because theoreticians
such as Turing related the stored program computer to a “universal machine” –
and surely one couldn’t possibly start with anything better than a universal
machine. In fact anyone who took time off to question the scientific
foundations of what was an outrageously successful industry would soon find
themselves at the back of the queue in the race for fame and fortune.
But is the algorithmic model
really the best or only “universal machine” model for handling information –
especially when incompletely understood and dynamically changing real world tasks
involving incomplete and fuzzy information is concerned?
My own research suggests that
there is an alternative – but to someone who is immersed in the world of formal
algorithms the first steps are counter-intuitive.
In 1967 I made a mistake as far
as my career was concerned as I would undoubtedly have had an easier life if I
had not queried the establishment line. I was a comparative newcomer to the
computer industry, but one who had entered via an unusual career path. I had
experience of working in a very complex manual management information system where the key was spotting and reporting the unexpected. I then moved to a
very large and complex commercial sales accounting system (Shell Mex & BP) in a completely different
industry where the problem was interfacing with a wide and ever changing market. It may well have been one of the most advances computer system of its type at the time. Finally I moved to a planning department concerned with the probable
market place for next generation large computers. My mistake was to pass my
boss a note which said that I thought it might be possible to reprogram the
microcode of an IBM architecture computer to give it a human friendly symbolic
assembly language. This language was called CODIL as it was a Context Dependent
Information Language. In retrospect what I had done was to take my manual skills in processing open-ended tasks and transferred to the computer.
The note was passed to the
computer pioneers David Caminer and John Pinkerton (who I understand consulted
Professor Maurice Wilkes) and as a result I was quickly transferred to research
with a useful sized budget and told not to talk to anyone until the patents had
been taken out. What happened was that an initial tentative idea, which in
retrospect needed several years interdisciplinary brainstorming, was dropped
straight into the computer industry rat race. Apart from the fact that the idea
clearly caused excitement I had no idea how unconventional it was, and knew
nothing about research into the relevant mathematical theory or psychological
studies relevant to modelling human thinking. I spent two years writing and
testing a pilot simulation program which demonstrated that the idea was at
least capable of processing a range of different applications. My reward was to
be declared redundant because of the formation of ICL and the closure of the
research division in which I worked. Despite the support of Basil de Ferranti
(the new Research Director) my project was deemed irrelevant to the company
policy of developing the 2900 Series of
computers- and it had to go.
So, with the benefit of nearly 50
years hindsight, what was the idea at the heart of my proposal?
The stored program model is a
rule based top-down approach which uses numbers to process numbers and assumes
that there is a human “creator” who can, a
priori, define the rules. If you look carefully at the “universal machine”
approach you realise that the theory does not cover cases where the rules are
not knowable in advance. In practice there is the additional restriction that any
“knowable” rules must be identifiable and implementable at a reasonable cost
and on a realistic timescale.
In contrast, the CODIL model I
developed is bottom up pattern recognition approach which assumes no prior
knowledge of the task to be handled. It uses sets and partitions of sets when
viewed as a mathematical model but these can be considered as concepts when its
human user interface is considered. (For example the CODIL item “Murderer =
Macbeth” is treated by the system as defining “Macbeth” as a member of the set
“Murderers”.) In set theoretic terms the model seems weak but its strength lies
in the power of recursion plus the ability to morph into the stored program
computer model. This can happens if you can divide the patterns
into two – with one set of patterns being “the rules” and the other set being “the
data”. However the system is best when handling problems when there is no clear
pre-definable global model and it can become very inefficient when handling
tasks which require millions of iterations through a small number of precisely defined rules working within a
highly constrained global model – the very area where the stored program
computer is strongest.
The two models are in fact
complementary – providing different views of the world of information
processing:
·
The stored program computer model can be
considered a special case of the CODIL model – but at the same time the CODIL
model can be considered a special case of the stored program computer model –
as it represents an algorithm whose specialist tack is to provide human users with
a tool to manage tasks for which the relevant algorithms are not known in advance.
·
The stored program computer model is best at
formal mathematical tasks which people find difficult – while the CODIL model
is more appropriate to open ended real world tasks where human interaction is
essential. This means that they both excel in the areas where the other is
weakest.
·
The original proposal (relating to reprogramming
the processor microcode of an existing system), and some later research,
suggests that it could be possible to build systems which combine both models.
·
Recent work suggests that the CODIL model will
map onto a neural network and provide the basis of an evolutionary pathway to
explain human intelligence.
So what happened next?
